I Wonder Why...?

Although there are those who still think that Madrid has always been the capital of Spain, the truth is that it has not. Throughout the history of the country and for different historical reasons throughout it, the capital moved in the past to other cities such as Toledo, Valladolid, Cádiz or Valencia, among others. All this together with the first capitals that were part of the peninsula at the time of ancient Visigothic Hispania, at the time of the Roman Republic or at the beginning of the Kingdom of Spain that originated after the reconquest in Covadonga (Asturias). These are the cities that have been the capital of Spain:

Cordoba

Córdoba was founded by the Romans during the second century BC, and it also became the capital of Hispania in times of the Roman Republic, as well as the Betica province during the Roman Empire. But its moment of splendour as a capital occurred during the Muslim domination of the Iberian Peninsula when it rose as the capital of the Emirate of Córdoba. A history that has also led it to become the city that houses the most titles of World Heritage Sites and thanks to authentic treasures that still live on today such as the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, its historic centre, the Fiesta de Los Patios or the palatine city of Medina Azahara, among others.

Barcelona

Barcelona was the first capital of Hispania Goda and it was reinstated several times specifically during the Visigothic period. Known at that time as Barcino, present-day Barcelona was a Roman city until the arrival of the Goths. Few remains from that Visigoth period are currently preserved in Barcelona, but most of what has been preserved can be seen in the archaeological basement of the Barcelona History Museum. Another important moment in the history of the city would be in 1937 when, in the middle of the Civil War, it was decided to move the headquarters of the Republican Government to Barcelona.

Cangas de Onís

In addition to being known as one of the must-see visits if you travel to Asturias, as well as for the Covadonga Cave, the Basilica and the famous lakes of Covadonga, Cangas de Onís was the first capital of Asturias and according to Asturians, it was also the first capital of the Kingdom of Spain. It was precisely in Covadonga where Don Pelayo won the battle against Muslim troops in 722, thus initiating the Reconquest. In Cangas de Onís, Don Pelayo first established the capital of the Kingdom of Asturias and later that of Spain.
 

Toledo

Toledo has had its role as capital in two moments in history. The first was in the year 567 when King Atanagildo decided to move the capital of the Spanish Visigothic Kingdom from Barcelona to Toledo. In this way, Toledo became the capital of the Kingdom of Spain. Hundreds of years later, between 1519 and 1561, Toledo once again became the capital of the Spanish empire with Carlos V, but they would finally end up in 1561 with the Cortes moving to Madrid.

Madrid

The history of Madrid as capital begins in May 1561 when Felipe II makes the decision to establish the Court permanently in this city. A decision that would forever change the history of the city, which at that time was just one more city in the kingdom. One of the main reasons associated with this decision is the geographical centrality of Madrid with respect to the rest of the peninsula, although this change has also been linked to political and love affairs on the part of Felipe II.

From this moment the accelerated growth of this city began, although it should be noted that between 1601 and 1939 the Cortes passed in different periods of time from Madrid to other cities such as Valladolid, Seville, Cádiz, Valencia or Burgos, the latter two, coinciding with the instability of the Spanish Civil War. It is finally in 1939 when the capital city returns permanently to Madrid.

Valladolid

For the city of Valladolid, history took an unexpected turn in 1601 after the advisor of Felipe III, the Duke of Lerma, managed to transfer the Court of Madrid to Valladolid. An unexpected event that made Valladolid the capital of the Empire from 1601 to 1606. An event that also brought this city its moment of maximum splendour.

Seville

Seville was the capital of Spain specifically for two years and at the same time that the Napoleonic wars occurred (between 1808 and 1810). In those years, a large part of Spanish territory was invaded by Napoleon's troops and Seville was one of the places where they fought with the greatest force against these troops. It was specifically on December 16, 1808, when Count Floridablanca, president of the 'Junta Central', summoned the Junta to Seville, from which time Seville became the Spanish capital, the Real Alcázar being the headquarters of the  'Junta Central'. This came to an end in January 1810 when Seville finally surrendered to the French army.

Cadiz

In addition to being the oldest city in Spain and also in Europe, its foundation being located eighty years after the Trojan War around the 13th century BC, Cádiz also became the capital of Spain after the transfer of the Cortes and after the handover of Seville to the French. Its period as capital city ran from 1810 to 1813 and it was in this city where the Spanish Constitution of 1812, La Pepa, was proclaimed.

Valencia

Valencia also experienced its time as the capital of Spain, something that occurred between November 1936 and October 1937, after the Council of Ministers made the decision to move the capital and due to the dangerous approach of Franco's troops to Madrid. A moment in history that corresponded to the Second Republic and in the midst of the Civil War. A new capital that happened from one day to the next. The current headquarters of the Cortes, the Palacio de Los Borja, was converted to the republican centre of operations.

Burgos

After the government of the Republic moved between 1936 and 1939 from Valencia, to Barcelona and Gerona and Figueras, finally, Burgos ended up holding the capital of Spain between April 1 and October 18, 1939, coinciding with the end of the Spanish Civil War. This resulted in Burgos becoming the capital of nationalist Spain after the coup against the Republic.

Every February, the streets of Barcelona come alive with a celebration deeply rooted in the city’s rich history and cultural fabric: the Festes de Santa Eulàlia. This vibrant festival honours Santa Eulalia, Barcelona’s co-patron saint, and reflects the distinct blend of reverence, tradition, and joyous festivity that characterizes the Catalan capital. This year it starts on February 12th.

Santa Eulalia of Barcelona is revered as a martyr and is counted among the city’s most significant historical figures. According to tradition, Eulalia was a young, pious girl who lived during Roman times. At the tender age of 13, she publicly opposed the persecution of Christians ordered by Emperor Diocletian. Her defiance led to her arrest and subsequent martyrdom under gruesome circumstances, involving thirteen tortures, one for each year of her life. Her bravery and faith secured her a lasting place in the hearts of Barcelonians.

The Festes de Santa Eulàlia commence with a solemn yet spirited atmosphere. The festival begins with a solemn Mass held at the cathedral of Santa Eulalia, also known as La Seu. A grand parade follows, featuring the city’s iconic gegants (giants) and capgrossos (big-headed figures). Adorned in elaborate costumes, these giant figures parade through the city, captivating spectators with their towering presence and rhythmic dance.

One of the most breathtaking highlights of the festival is the display of castells. These human towers, constructed by agile teams called Castellers, symbolize collective effort and communal unity. Constructing a Castell involves a precise interplay of strength, balance, and teamwork, with young children often climbing to the very top. The sight of a Castell reaching skyward is both thrilling and deeply emblematic of Catalan culture.

The Sardana, a traditional Catalan circle dance, forms another integral part of the Festes de Santa Eulàlia. Local dance groups gather in public squares, inviting residents and visitors alike to join in this communal dance. With hands linked, dancers perform intricate steps to the accompanying strains of cobla music, fostering a sense of community and shared heritage.

For those seeking a more adrenaline-fueled experience, the correfoc (fire run) provides an exhilarating spectacle. As night falls, costumed devils and mythical creatures take to the streets, wielding sparklers and fireworks. They charge through the crowd to the beat of drums, creating an electrifying atmosphere. Participants and onlookers alike are advised to wear protective clothing to fully enjoy this unique tradition safely.

One of the more contemporary additions to the festival program is the stunning display of light and sound installations that decorate Barcelona’s buildings and public spaces. Iconic landmarks such as the Ajuntament (City Hall) and the Basilica of Santa Maria del Mar are transformed into canvases for brilliant projections, casting the city in a luminous, almost magical hue.

In keeping with the spirit of Santa Eulalia, who is often characterized as the patron saint of children, the festival also includes numerous activities designed for young ones. From storytelling sessions detailing the life of Santa Eulalia to workshops and craft activities, children play a central role in the celebrations, learning about their heritage in an engaging and festive environment.

While the Festes de Santa Eulàlia is deeply rooted in religious tradition, it serves a broader cultural and social purpose. It is a time for Barcelonians to come together, celebrate their heritage, and reaffirm their communal bonds. The festival also highlights the city’s commitment to preserving and promoting Catalan culture, ensuring that traditions are passed down through generations.

For visitors, the Festes de Santa Eulàlia offer a unique opportunity to experience both the historical and contemporary facets of Barcelona. The city’s streets, already famed for their architectural splendour and vibrant energy, take on an even more dynamic character during the festival. By participating in the events, sampling local culinary delights, and mingling with residents, visitors can gain a deeper understanding of the city’s rich cultural tapestry.

The Festes de Santa Eulàlia stand as a testament to Barcelona’s enduring spirit of celebration and cultural pride. Honouring the legacy of a young girl whose bravery left an indelible mark on the city’s history, the festival seamlessly blends ancient traditions with modern expressions of community. Whether through the majestic parades, the daring human towers, or the dazzling light displays, the festival offers a heartfelt celebration of Barcelona’s past and present. For locals and visitors alike, the Festes de Santa Eulàlia are a vibrant reminder of the city’s unique charm and its profound sense of identity.

Traditions have always aroused a lot of curiosity in me because there is always a reason for them, nothing just happens by chance. Every year I celebrate the tradition of the New Year's Eve grapes and many years ago I wondered why they actually did this and nobody really seemed to know why. Still, to this very day, I am yet to meet a Spaniard who knows the story..... so I always end up telling it, every year!

The very short version of the story, which is pretty much common knowledge, is that wine farmers from Alicante and Murcia promoted the tradition in 1909. They were eager to sell on their large surplus of grapes from the incredible harvest they had had that year. However, although this story has some truth to it, the real origin dates back even further.

If we define the tradition of the New Year's Eve grapes as when twelve grapes are eaten in the Puerta del Sol at 12 am on December 31, which is basically the general understanding, the first written testimony of this goes as far back as January 1897 when the Madrid Press published that in "Madrid it is customary to eat twelve grapes as the clock strikes twelve, separating the outgoing year from the incoming year…" this means that at least in 1896 it was done, and probably many years before that for it to be considered  “customary” by the local press.

The plausible explanation for why someone decided it was a good idea to get cold the last night of the year waiting for a clock to strike 12 strokes and choke on a dozen grapes goes back to 1882. That year the mayor of Madrid, José Abascal y Carredano, decided to impose a tax of 5 pesetas for all those who wanted to go out and celebrate the Three Kings on the night of January 5. The purpose of this was not to stop any tradition or start any new ones but to stop the general public from raising hell and getting drunk through the night – this should not be confused with the festive floats and processions which were in the afternoon and open to everyone. 

However, it did deprive the vast majority of the locals of partying that night, except for those that were well off, of course. This obviously led to the people rebelling and trying to find a way to let off steam so New Year’s Eve became the night of preference for partying and an opportunity to make a mockery of the recent bourgeois traditions imported from France and Germany. The local newspapers frequently published how the upper class now celebrated the New Year by drinking champagne and eating grapes during the New Year’s Eve dinner, so as an act of protest the working class would congregate in the Puerta del Sol and eat grapes as the clock struck twelve.

This behaviour quickly spread and popularised in the capital, to the point that in 1897 the merchants of the city advertised the sale of “Lucky Grapes” and within just a few years it was known as far away as Tenerife.  Now, this is when the Levante wine farmers come on the scene, taking advantage of their surplus production in 1909, they carried out a national campaign to embed and enhance the custom throughout the country and were thus able to sell all their harvest.

Clearly, it worked and today there are few who do not welcome the New Year with 12 grapes in their hand and eat them to the sound of each stroke as it counts down to the New Year. Rare is the Spaniard who will risk poisoning their fate for the coming year by skipping the grapes, many don’t finish them in time and it does take a bit of practice but it is the effort that counts, no effort – no luck, well at least that’s what those who don’t succeed tend to say… 

For those who cannot be in the Puerta del Sol, they will follow it on television, normally on La Primera which tops the national audience ratings year after year with around 8 million viewers, some 6 million more than second place. Being such an important occasion some people spend a few extra minutes to remove the seeds or peel the skins off their grapes all in an attempt to improve their chances of swallowing them in time. My best piece of advice is: buy small seedless grapes and you’ll have no problem but they are not easy to come by as the traditional grape variety for New Year's Eve is the Vinalopó from the Valencian Community, the one promoted by the wine farmers back in 1909, so if you can't find seedless try to avoid the large juicy ones or you’ll be in trouble and may well choke your way into the New Year, try and pick the smaller ones and at least remove the seeds…. Good Luck and wishing you all a Happy New Year!

The Industrial Revolution changed everything. In the history of humanity, there have been many technological milestones and a good handful of them have contributed to shaping our world into what we know today. However, along with fire, writing and the digital revolution, the industrial revolution competes for first place in the ranking of importance and, therefore, its main representative: the steam engine. Perhaps that is why the Spanish find it so attractive to think that, perhaps, the person responsible for all this could be a Spaniard. A 16th-century Spaniard who designed a steam engine prior to the one that James Watt would patent in 1769. His name had been lost over the centuries as if brushed aside and forgotten.

Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont was a Navarrese military man, humanist and polymath who soon turned to music, cosmology and, of course, engineering. Depending on where we read about his life, we will find from modest biographies to true odes to this “Spanish Leonardo”. What is true, then? If we leave aside the ambiguous statements and the chauvinistic effluvia, we will find a series of interesting and commendable achievements, but that is far from the production of most of the historical figures that we have for "geniuses”,  such as  Da Vinci. And, knowing this, it is normal that we start from a certain point of mistrust when accepting that he could be the father of one of the most decisive revolutions in history. A suspicion that increases when we begin to document ourselves about it and find that there seem to be a few figures who dispute the invention of the steam engine. What's the problem? None of them lies as such, but it seems difficult to assign paternity to this invention and there is a good reason for it.

The truth is that the family tree of almost any technological revolution is very difficult to trace. It is not clear where it begins or who should be recognised as the father. In the end, a series of figures share quite important merits and it does not seem easy to choose one in particular, so our brain ends up asking us to desist, unable to unravel the web of contradictions that we find (especially in informative texts). Luckily, there are two key questions that we can ask ourselves whenever we find ourselves in this situation and that may help us resolve the doubt.

Of course, the simplest question would be "who was the first?". But in general, we will find that almost all devices are based on previous designs and, as much as it surprises us, they can be traced back almost as much as we want. For example, in the case of a machine that uses steam to generate movement, we could go back to the first century AD. and name Heron of Alexandria as the father of technology. His aeolipile was a sphere filled with water which, when heated, released pressurized steam through two twisted tubes, thereby spinning the sphere on an axis. In fact, maybe we could go back a few years because we know that Heron used to be inspired by previous designs by Ctesibius. However, we will agree that it was impossible to achieve the Industrial Revolution with the Alexandrian design. Therefore, the really important question is not that, but who put the intention and who made it efficient.

Heron did not know what to use the aeolipile for, his intention was not adequate and that is why he did not begin to use it to generate the workforce. That turning point, in which a technological anecdote finds a revolutionary application, is possibly the key to determining who its true inventor is. In this case, there is quite a bit of dispute, because until a few decades ago Thomas Savery was spoken of as the pioneer who developed, for the first time, a functional steam engine. Specifically, his purpose was to use it as a suction pump, capable of creating a vacuum by expanding and contracting steam. That happened in 1698 but we have already said that our Spanish candidate lived in the previous century, so if he had found a clear application, it could become the first practical application of which we are aware.

Well, the truth is yes. Indeed, Jerónimo had already used his steam engine to generate a vacuum and ventilate mines thanks to it. However, we will agree that none of these applications is close to the engines that made the Industrial Revolution what it was. However, there is an even bigger problem: it was completely inefficient, practically a curious toy, better than nothing, but quite useless. Thomas Newcomen would take a new step in 1712, creating the atmospheric steam engine, capable of pumping water more or less continuously, but it was still very inefficient. That is why we usually consider James Watt the father of the steam engine because when he came up with his patent in 1769, that machine had two basic characteristics: it was applicable and it was much more efficient than its predecessors. To get an idea, it consumed a third of the coal that Newcomen's needed to produce the same energy, and that is what we needed to fuel a true Industrial Revolution.

Without a doubt, Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont is a Spanish figure to be proud of, but despite the fact that he made some important progressions, it is difficult to justify that he is the father of a technology for which he was neither the first nor the one who gave the real leap in efficiency.

Día de los Santos Inocentes (Day of the Holy Innocents) is observed on December 28th in Spain and many Latin American countries, and its origin is rooted in a tragic event described in the Bible. According to the Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 2:16-18), King Herod the Great, feeling threatened by the prophecy of the birth of Jesus, ordered the massacre of all male infants in Bethlehem who were two years old and under. This horrifying event is known as the "Massacre of the Innocents."

King Herod, having been informed by the Wise Men of the birth of a new "King of the Jews," sought to eliminate any potential challenger to his throne. When he realized that the Wise Men had outwitted him by not returning to disclose Jesus' location, he ordered the killing of all young male children in Bethlehem and its vicinity. This event caused untold suffering and grief among the families of these innocent children.

The Transformation of the Tradition

Over time, the commemoration of this somber event evolved into a cultural and social tradition with a distinctly different tone. In Medieval Spain, this day began to be marked by a series of pranks and practical jokes, akin to April Fool's Day in many Western countries. Today, Día de los Santos Inocentes is characterized by light-hearted antics and merriment. People play practical jokes, tell tall tales, and the media often publishes fake news stories, all in good fun.

The transformation from a day of mourning to one of mirth is an interesting cultural evolution. The exact reasons for this shift are not entirely clear, but it is believed that the blending of pagan and Christian traditions, along with a natural human tendency to ward off the darkness of winter with joy and laughter, played a significant role.

The Cultural Twist

Despite the comedic overtones associated with modern celebrations of Día de los Santos Inocentes, the day retains its historical and religious roots for many. It serves as a reminder of the innocent lives lost in Bethlehem and the cruelty of Herod's decree. In some regions, traditional observances still include religious services and prayers to honor the memory of the martyred children.

In various parts of Spain and Latin America, unique local customs also reflect the day’s dual nature. For example:

• In Guatemala, the day is marked by the release of small lanterns into the sky, symbolizing the souls of the innocent children.

• In Mexico, elaborate practical jokes are combined with a more reflective aspect, where families remember the biblical story.

• In Ecuador, there are parades and street performances that mix comedy with poignant reminders of the historical events.

A Day of Duality

Día de los Santos Inocentes is a day of duality, blending sorrow with joy, and reflection with laughter. It demonstrates how cultural traditions can evolve and adapt over time, incorporating new elements while retaining their historical and religious significance. The pranks and jokes that are now synonymous with the day bring a sense of joy and community, but they also add a layer of complexity to the commemoration of an event that originally symbolized a dark period of infanticide and suffering.

In celebrating Día de los Santos Inocentes, many people are reminded of the resilience of the human spirit and the importance of finding light even in the darkest of times.

Throughout history, the Iberian Peninsula has been home to many peoples and civilizations, such as the Roman, Visigothic or Phoenician, among others. Many of them have left a very important historical and cultural legacy, however, the Muslim one is, without a doubt, the one that has had the most influence at all levels: cultural, historical, gastronomic, etc.

An example of this is the numerous buildings and fortresses that run through the peninsula, such as the Alcazaba de Almería, Castillo de Vélez-Málaga, and of course, the Alhambra.  Many of them are in a good state of conservation, however, over the years and lack of care, others are at risk of abandonment. This is the case of the Caliphate castle of Gormaz, in Soria, which happens to be the longest in Europe.

This fortress stands imposingly on a hill from which it dominates the Duero valley. Made almost entirely of carved ashlars, it has two differentiated areas separated by a moat, today covered: the fortress and the walled enclosure.

In the fortress, the 10th-century Almanzor tower, the weapons room and the Torre del Homenaje stand out, with caliphal rigging and reused caliphal embedded beams, which act as the entrance door to the fortress, with a total of seven towers. The walled enclosure consists of about 1,200 meters in perimeter, 446 meters long and 60 meters wide, thus being the largest construction in all of Europe from the 9th and 10th centuries.

This impressive castle was built during the Caliphate of Córdoba in the 9th century and later enlarged to adapt to the orography. It had its heyday during the time of Gálib and Almanzor, and suffered numerous sieges due to its strategic and military location, although it also served the Cordovan caliphate to dominate the entire Duero valley. It conserves an impressive caliphal double door with a typical horseshoe arch, located to the south and, although it is not the only entrance, it must have been the most common.

The Gormaz fortress is in a poor state of conservation, which has made it enter the Red List of Heritage for its "uneven state of conservation". This inequality is mainly due to its enormous dimensions and is also the result of the different unequal interventions carried out. 

The best way to go to this castle is by private vehicle. From Soria, the distance to the fortress is approximately 66 kilometres, with a journey time of about 55 minutes along the SO-100 road.

The Spanish guitar, with its rich, resonant tones and expressive capabilities, holds a unique place in the world of music. Its journey through history is a fascinating tale of evolution, innovation, and cultural exchange, spanning centuries and continents. From its humble beginnings in ancient civilizations to its modern-day status as a beloved instrument across genres, the Spanish guitar's story is as captivating as its sound. 

Early Ancestors: Laying the Foundation

The roots of the Spanish guitar can be traced back to ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece, where instruments like the oud and the cithara were played. These early stringed instruments, with their pear-shaped bodies and fretted necks, laid the groundwork for the guitar as we know it today.

The Moorish Influence: A New Sound in Spain

The Moors, who ruled Spain for centuries, brought with them their own musical traditions and instruments, including the oud. This lute-like instrument, with its rounded back and short neck, had a profound influence on the development of the guitar in Spain. The Moors also introduced new musical scales and modes, enriching the musical landscape of the Iberian Peninsula. 

The Medieval Guitar: Taking Shape

By the Middle Ages, two distinct types of guitars had emerged in Spain: the guitarra latina, with its four strings, and the guitarra morisca, with its five strings. These instruments, played with a plectrum or quill, were popular among the common people and were often used to accompany songs and dances.

The Renaissance Vihuela: A Golden Age

The Renaissance saw the rise of the vihuela, a six-course (double-stringed) instrument that resembled a larger guitar. The vihuela enjoyed immense popularity in Spain during the 16th century, becoming a favourite instrument of the nobility and a symbol of courtly refinement. Composers like Luis de Milán and Alonso Mudarra wrote intricate and expressive music for the vihuela, contributing to a golden age of Spanish music.  

The Baroque Guitar: Five Courses and Growing Popularity

In the 17th century, the five-course guitar, with its five sets of double strings, emerged as the dominant form of the instrument. This guitar, with its brighter and more resonant sound, gradually replaced the vihuela in popularity. The Baroque guitar was widely used in Spain and throughout Europe, and composers like Gaspar Sanz and Robert de Visée wrote extensive works for the instrument.  

The Classical Guitar: A Modern Icon Emerges

The 19th century witnessed the birth of the modern classical guitar, thanks to the pioneering work of Spanish luthier Antonio de Torres Jurado. Torres revolutionized the design of the guitar, increasing its size, refining its shape, and developing a fan-bracing system that enhanced its sound projection and tonal quality. His innovations laid the foundation for the modern classical guitar, which quickly gained popularity among both amateur and professional musicians.  

The 20th Century and Beyond: Diversification and Global Recognition

The 20th century saw the Spanish guitar embraced by a wide range of musical genres, from classical and flamenco to folk, jazz, and rock. Spanish composers like Isaac Albéniz and Manuel de Falla wrote masterpieces for the guitar, showcasing its versatility and expressive power. Flamenco guitar, with its percussive techniques and passionate energy, emerged as a distinct style, captivating audiences worldwide.  

The Spanish guitar also found its way into popular music, thanks to the influence of musicians like Andrés Segovia, who championed the instrument on the international stage. Segovia's virtuosity and dedication helped elevate the guitar to new heights, inspiring generations of guitarists and composers.  

The Spanish Guitar Today: A Timeless Instrument

Today, the Spanish guitar continues to be a beloved instrument around the world, appreciated for its versatility, rich sound, and cultural significance. From concert halls to intimate gatherings, the Spanish guitar's captivating tones continue to resonate with audiences of all backgrounds.  

Key Features of the Spanish Guitar

The Spanish guitar, also known as the classical guitar, is characterized by several key features that distinguish it from other types of guitars:

• Nylon Strings: Unlike steel-string acoustic guitars, the Spanish guitar uses nylon strings, which produce a warmer, mellower tone.
• Wide Neck: The Spanish guitar has a wider neck than most other guitars, allowing for greater finger spacing and facilitating complex fingerpicking patterns.
• Lightweight Body: The body of the Spanish guitar is typically made of lightweight woods like cedar and spruce, contributing to its resonant and responsive sound.
• Fan Bracing: The internal bracing system of the Spanish guitar, pioneered by Antonio de Torres, uses a fan-like pattern to distribute tension and enhance sound projection.  

The Spanish Guitar's Enduring Legacy

The Spanish guitar's journey through history is a testament to its enduring appeal and its ability to adapt and evolve with the times. From its ancient origins to its modern-day prominence, the Spanish guitar has captivated musicians and audiences alike with its expressive sound and rich cultural heritage. Whether played in a concert hall, a flamenco tablao, or a quiet corner of a home, the Spanish guitar continues to inspire and enchant, carrying with it the spirit of Spain and the legacy of generations of musicians who have shaped its remarkable history

All of you who know Spanish culture will agree that it revolves around festivals and parties. Most of the world knows about the British way of celebrating Halloween, but if you are in Spain on October 31 this year, you will realise that it is quickly becoming an important affair here. The festival which originated from the essence of remembering the dead, including saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed is fairly common in most of the civilizations across the globe.

When it comes to festivities the Spaniards like everything to be grand and elaborate. So now Halloween has become a three-day event starting with the night of Halloween. The second day (November 1st) is Dia de Todos Los Santos (All Saints Day) a day that has always been celebrated as far as can be remembered. Finally, on November 2nd, the concluding day of this festival is known as the Dia de Los Muertos (the Day of the dead) a holiday that is being borrowed from the Mexican tradition. This festival is all about honouring the dead and celebrating the continuity of life and thanking the Lord for giving us this life.

Different provinces and parts of Spain follow different rituals on these three days. Halloween in Galicia in Northern Spain is celebrated with more enthusiasm and pumpkin carving competitions, costume parties, bonfires fill the entire area. People happily sip a strong alcoholic drink named Quemada after reciting a spell (esconxuro).

Halloween in Barcelona and Catalonia is a little different affair and the bars and clubs are full of special nights and costume parties. Enjoy the Catalan tradition of La Castanyada and eat the small Catalan cakes ”panellets” made of marzipan, almonds, nuts and various other foods. Also be a part of various events, game shows, music concerts and other activities. You can eat in the local stalls which will be filled with seasonal delicacies such as castanyes (chestnuts), sweet wine, savouries, sweet potatoes and other delicacies.

There might be other fun activities in Barcelona during this time, but the locals do not forget to pay respect to their dead. Make sure you visit the city’s magnificent cemeteries to witness these mass gatherings. Some of the popular cemeteries are Montjuïc, Poblenou, and Les Corts.

Even though Halloween in Spain certainly has a commercial side, you will witness families gathering at the graves of deceased loved ones with flowers, offerings, holy water, food and drink on the second day of the festival. This is very much rooted in their culture and most will place at least flowers on family members' graves.

Halloween and the cut-outs of pumpkins go hand in hand in the memory of everyone who celebrates it or has witnessed it in movies and TV series. Just like in Britain and the US, on the first day of Halloween, around the country, you will now see children carving pumpkins and illuminating them with candles. It is now common to see pumpkins on sale in all supermarkets, something that wasn't so common 10 years ago. 

In the Southern part of Spain, in the city of Malaga, Halloween is marked with a large zombie march through the streets. You can witness the participants dressed up as witches, ghosts, goblins, zombies, vampires, Dracula, Frankenstein etc. roaming around on the streets and scaring people. There are competitions organised to tell scary stories and there is an eerie environment all around. This air of carnival can be seen in most cities around the country nowadays especially in University cities where you will see hundreds of students dressing up and roaming the streets.

In the city of Cadiz, during the Halloween holidays, street performances and concerts are organised. Also, you can enjoy the fruit and vegetable stalls which will display characters from some recent political scandals. The cut-outs and models made out of fruits and vegetables are quite mind-boggling. 
Tosantos in Cadiz also celebrates what is possibly the world’s weirdest Halloween gastro fest where market stallholders dress up their merchandise in fancy dress, so long as it’s entertaining and made out of food, anything goes. 

"Next stop, Banco de España." When you travel on line 2 of the Madrid metro and approach this station, little would you know that just a few meters away you can find one of the best-kept treasures in Spain, the Bank of Spain's gold deposit chamber? A chamber that contains a third of Spain’s total reserve of this precious metal.

The central headquarters of the Bank of Spain is one of the most representative buildings of Madrid and of the Spanish architecture of the 19th and early 20th centuries. For the construction of the current headquarters of the Bank of Spain, the palace of the Marquis of Alcañices was acquired in 1882, located on Calle de Alcalá around the Paseo del Prado. The first stone was laid on July 4, 1884, in a ceremony attended by King Alfonso XII and the monumental building was inaugurated in 1891.

Construction of the vault for the safekeeping of the gold began in late 1932 and was completed in two and a half years, with 260 workers working three shifts. Its approximate cost was nine and a half million pesetas. The inauguration took place shortly before the Civil War, during which it served as a refuge from the bombings for the families who inhabited the bank building.

The chamber is 35 meters deep and its surface is 2,500 square meters. Its design seems to be inspired by a similar construction of the vault of the Vienna Savings Bank.

The construction is made of reinforced concrete and molten cement, and to carry it out it was necessary to pipe and divert the waters present in the subsoil, some 25 meters deep, as it pressed on the walls of the chamber. This water corresponds to the Las Pascualas stream, which runs almost at surface level along the Castellana and which was, in its day, channelled underground, running down Calle Alcalá and feeds into the fountain of Cibeles.

Access to the chamber is through several armoured doors, the first of which weighs around 16 tons and was manufactured in Pennsylvania, USA, by Cofres Forts York (York Safe & Lock Company). The other smaller doors, but also armoured, were manufactured by the same company. Its weight ranges between 15 and 8 tons. To carry out the descent of these doors down into their position, steel cables were used that could only be used once, due to the wear they suffered when supporting the immense weight of the doors.

The armoured door has a very small tolerance, of tenths of a millimetre, so that even the slightest impurity in the arch prevents it from fitting correctly and the anchor points from being activated. In addition, the door is made of steel, but not stainless, so care must be taken to maintain it, and it should always be covered with a thin layer of petroleum jelly to prevent it from rusting.

The gold chamber houses the numismatic collection of the Bank of Spain, only comparable to the collections of the Archaeological Museum or the Royal Mint, and part of the gold reserves. Inside it, a third of the Spanish gold reserve is stacked on shelves made by the engineer Eiffel. Some even say that the chamber could contain 38 Nazi gold bars with which Switzerland paid Spain between 1941 and 1945 and that they have the III Reich shield with its swastika printed on them.

What is clear is that most of the coins that make up this collection come from popular subscriptions made during the Civil War, donations, sometimes voluntary, for the financing of the army and the deposits constituted from 1937, as a result of the Decree of Nationalization of Foreign Exchange and Gold. This Decree obliged all citizens to deliver the gold in paste or coin that they had in their power to replace the gold reserves that the republican government had sent to Moscow as payment for war supplies.

These deliveries were made in the form of deposits and most of them are not recoverable because the depositors chose to collect in cash the gold value of their coins. Others, whose coins had a higher numismatic or sentimental value, preferred to keep the deposit in the hope of recovering them when the regulations allowed. Some of the latter are still being returned, provided that the claimant can prove his right to the deposit.

The collection, of great numismatic value, is made up of more than half a million pieces and includes coins of very diverse origin since it collects not only the numismatic history of the Iberian Peninsula but there are also Greek, Roman, Byzantine pieces, from Hispanic America, French or British. It also has a complete collection of gold dollars, minted since the 17th century. There is also a less numerous collection of silver pieces.

The Bank of Spain owns 9.1 million troy ounces of gold, according to 2014 data, which are deposited in its own vaults and in three other places abroad, including the Bank for International Settlements in Basel, for reasons of logistical ease, in case it was necessary to mobilize these reserves. Another place where part of the gold is conserved is Fort Knox, in the United States. A standard gold bar weighs 400 troy ounces, just under 12 and a half kilos.

To get to the vault, you have to overcome various obstacles and as you can imagine, it is not very easy. That said, it sounds like an adventure for Indiana Jones and this location is the used in the new season of the Money Heist!

• The first obstacle is a 16-ton steel door. To open the door, three keys are necessary: ​​those of the general manager, the controller and the cashier.
• Then you reach a fortified elevator that is the only way to descend through a vertical tunnel of 36-38 meters. Of course, you need a different key to use the elevator.
• Once down, you go through an underground corridor until you reach another 14-ton steel door.
• Once through that door, there is a moat. To cross it you have to use a retractable bridge as in the Middle Ages.
• Behind the bridge is another 8-ton armoured door. This is the access to the vault that contains the gold. In addition to this, there are sensors, cameras and all kinds of surveillance devices.

If an alarm were to go off, all doors would automatically close and the moat would be completely flooded within minutes thanks to the underwater stream channelling into the fountain of Cibeles. The police or the army would arrive in less than 5 minutes and it would all be over.

But ultimately it is Cibeles who is safeguarding Spain’s gold!

Not once has anyone ever attempted to rob the Bank of Spain.

Inside the original building from 1891, the main staircase and the patio stand out, which was the general reception area and which today occupies the library, to which a cast-iron structure was added, commissioned from the Mieres Factory.

The monumental Carrara marble staircase, which is accessed from the Paseo del Prado door, is a sample of the most traditional architecture, designed by the Bank's architects and executed by Adolfo Areizaga from Bilbao. Next to it are magnificent Symbolist-style stained glass windows commissioned from the German company Mayer, with numerous allegorical figures.

With the expansion decided in 1927 and completed in 1934, the new operations yard, with a height of 27 meters and an area of ​​about 900 square meters, departs from the classic concepts and includes some examples of Art Deco, such as the upper window or the clock, a decorative and functional piece located in the centre of the patio. Also noteworthy is the roundabout, which serves as an interior link between the two buildings.

Drawing upon the rich tapestry of traditional Galician life, the Carapucho emerges not merely as a garment but as a testament to the ingenuity and resilience of the Galician people, especially the rural populace. This unique creation, fashioned from straw, reflects a harmonious blend of necessity and artistry, deeply embedded in the historical narrative of Northern Spain.

The Essence of Carapucho

The rural areas of Galicia have always been subject to harsh environmental conditions, with cold rains characterising much of the year. The Carapucho was born out of a practical need to shield oneself from these relentless downpours. However, its significance transcends its utility, marking a cultural identity that has weathered the storms of time.

Crafted from straw, the Carapucho served as a makeshift raincoat for peasants. This material choice was no accident; straw was readily available and offered effective waterproof characteristics, making it an ideal resource for protective clothing in a pre-industrial context. The craftsmanship involved in creating a Carapucho demonstrates a profound understanding of the materials at hand and a creative spirit that turned simple agricultural byproducts into a vital part of everyday life. The process of making a Carapucho involved more than merely fashioning a hat or a cloak; it was a meticulous craft that required patience, skill, and a deep connection with the natural environment. The peasants would gather straw or reeds, materials that were in abundant supply across the Galician countryside. These were then intricately woven together to form a coherent structure. The result was not only functional, protecting the wearer's entire head and, in some cases, even the shoulders and upper body from the rain, but also allowed for free movement, which was crucial for working outdoors.

Moreover, the creation of the Carapucho was a communal activity, reflecting the collectivist spirit of rural Galicia. It was common for families or groups of neighbours to come together, sharing techniques and stories as they worked. This not only facilitated the practical transmission of knowledge across generations but also strengthened community bonds. Each Carapucho, therefore, was imbued with a sense of shared identity and collective resilience.

Beyond Practicality: Symbolism and Identity

While the primary function of the Carapucho was undeniably practical, its cultural significance cannot be overstated. In a region where weather could dictate the rhythm of daily life, the ability to carry on work regardless of the elements was both a necessity and a point of pride. The Carapucho came to symbolise the hardiness of the Galician people, embodying their unyielding spirit and close relationship with the land.

As industrialisation and modern advances introduced new materials and clothing options, the use of the Carapucho in its traditional form diminished. However, it remains a potent symbol of Galician heritage, evoking memories of a time when life was intimately tied to the rhythms of nature and community was forged in the face of adversity.

The Carapucho Today

In contemporary times, the Carapucho holds a special place in the cultural memory of Galicia. While no longer a common sight in the fields, it endures as an emblem of Galician identity, celebrated at cultural events and festivals. Artisans and historians alike continue to explore and preserve the techniques used to create these remarkable garments, ensuring that the knowledge does not fade into obscurity.

The Carapucho is much more than a historical curiosity; it is a vibrant thread in the fabric of Galician culture, representing the convergence of necessity, creativity, and community.