I Wonder Why...?

The Spanish guitar, with its rich, resonant tones and expressive capabilities, holds a unique place in the world of music. Its journey through history is a fascinating tale of evolution, innovation, and cultural exchange, spanning centuries and continents. From its humble beginnings in ancient civilizations to its modern-day status as a beloved instrument across genres, the Spanish guitar's story is as captivating as its sound. 

Early Ancestors: Laying the Foundation

The roots of the Spanish guitar can be traced back to ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece, where instruments like the oud and the cithara were played. These early stringed instruments, with their pear-shaped bodies and fretted necks, laid the groundwork for the guitar as we know it today.

The Moorish Influence: A New Sound in Spain

The Moors, who ruled Spain for centuries, brought with them their own musical traditions and instruments, including the oud. This lute-like instrument, with its rounded back and short neck, had a profound influence on the development of the guitar in Spain. The Moors also introduced new musical scales and modes, enriching the musical landscape of the Iberian Peninsula. 

The Medieval Guitar: Taking Shape

By the Middle Ages, two distinct types of guitars had emerged in Spain: the guitarra latina, with its four strings, and the guitarra morisca, with its five strings. These instruments, played with a plectrum or quill, were popular among the common people and were often used to accompany songs and dances.

The Renaissance Vihuela: A Golden Age

The Renaissance saw the rise of the vihuela, a six-course (double-stringed) instrument that resembled a larger guitar. The vihuela enjoyed immense popularity in Spain during the 16th century, becoming a favourite instrument of the nobility and a symbol of courtly refinement. Composers like Luis de Milán and Alonso Mudarra wrote intricate and expressive music for the vihuela, contributing to a golden age of Spanish music.  

The Baroque Guitar: Five Courses and Growing Popularity

In the 17th century, the five-course guitar, with its five sets of double strings, emerged as the dominant form of the instrument. This guitar, with its brighter and more resonant sound, gradually replaced the vihuela in popularity. The Baroque guitar was widely used in Spain and throughout Europe, and composers like Gaspar Sanz and Robert de Visée wrote extensive works for the instrument.  

The Classical Guitar: A Modern Icon Emerges

The 19th century witnessed the birth of the modern classical guitar, thanks to the pioneering work of Spanish luthier Antonio de Torres Jurado. Torres revolutionized the design of the guitar, increasing its size, refining its shape, and developing a fan-bracing system that enhanced its sound projection and tonal quality. His innovations laid the foundation for the modern classical guitar, which quickly gained popularity among both amateur and professional musicians.  

The 20th Century and Beyond: Diversification and Global Recognition

The 20th century saw the Spanish guitar embraced by a wide range of musical genres, from classical and flamenco to folk, jazz, and rock. Spanish composers like Isaac Albéniz and Manuel de Falla wrote masterpieces for the guitar, showcasing its versatility and expressive power. Flamenco guitar, with its percussive techniques and passionate energy, emerged as a distinct style, captivating audiences worldwide.  

The Spanish guitar also found its way into popular music, thanks to the influence of musicians like Andrés Segovia, who championed the instrument on the international stage. Segovia's virtuosity and dedication helped elevate the guitar to new heights, inspiring generations of guitarists and composers.  

The Spanish Guitar Today: A Timeless Instrument

Today, the Spanish guitar continues to be a beloved instrument around the world, appreciated for its versatility, rich sound, and cultural significance. From concert halls to intimate gatherings, the Spanish guitar's captivating tones continue to resonate with audiences of all backgrounds.  

Key Features of the Spanish Guitar

The Spanish guitar, also known as the classical guitar, is characterized by several key features that distinguish it from other types of guitars:

• Nylon Strings: Unlike steel-string acoustic guitars, the Spanish guitar uses nylon strings, which produce a warmer, mellower tone.
• Wide Neck: The Spanish guitar has a wider neck than most other guitars, allowing for greater finger spacing and facilitating complex fingerpicking patterns.
• Lightweight Body: The body of the Spanish guitar is typically made of lightweight woods like cedar and spruce, contributing to its resonant and responsive sound.
• Fan Bracing: The internal bracing system of the Spanish guitar, pioneered by Antonio de Torres, uses a fan-like pattern to distribute tension and enhance sound projection.  

The Spanish Guitar's Enduring Legacy

The Spanish guitar's journey through history is a testament to its enduring appeal and its ability to adapt and evolve with the times. From its ancient origins to its modern-day prominence, the Spanish guitar has captivated musicians and audiences alike with its expressive sound and rich cultural heritage. Whether played in a concert hall, a flamenco tablao, or a quiet corner of a home, the Spanish guitar continues to inspire and enchant, carrying with it the spirit of Spain and the legacy of generations of musicians who have shaped its remarkable history

All of you who know Spanish culture will agree that it revolves around festivals and parties. Most of the world knows about the British way of celebrating Halloween, but if you are in Spain on October 31 this year, you will realise that it is quickly becoming an important affair here. The festival which originated from the essence of remembering the dead, including saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed is fairly common in most of the civilizations across the globe.

When it comes to festivities the Spaniards like everything to be grand and elaborate. So now Halloween has become a three-day event starting with the night of Halloween. The second day (November 1st) is Dia de Todos Los Santos (All Saints Day) a day that has always been celebrated as far as can be remembered. Finally, on November 2nd, the concluding day of this festival is known as the Dia de Los Muertos (the Day of the dead) a holiday that is being borrowed from the Mexican tradition. This festival is all about honouring the dead and celebrating the continuity of life and thanking the Lord for giving us this life.

Different provinces and parts of Spain follow different rituals on these three days. Halloween in Galicia in Northern Spain is celebrated with more enthusiasm and pumpkin carving competitions, costume parties, bonfires fill the entire area. People happily sip a strong alcoholic drink named Quemada after reciting a spell (esconxuro).

Halloween in Barcelona and Catalonia is a little different affair and the bars and clubs are full of special nights and costume parties. Enjoy the Catalan tradition of La Castanyada and eat the small Catalan cakes ”panellets” made of marzipan, almonds, nuts and various other foods. Also be a part of various events, game shows, music concerts and other activities. You can eat in the local stalls which will be filled with seasonal delicacies such as castanyes (chestnuts), sweet wine, savouries, sweet potatoes and other delicacies.

There might be other fun activities in Barcelona during this time, but the locals do not forget to pay respect to their dead. Make sure you visit the city’s magnificent cemeteries to witness these mass gatherings. Some of the popular cemeteries are Montjuïc, Poblenou, and Les Corts.

Even though Halloween in Spain certainly has a commercial side, you will witness families gathering at the graves of deceased loved ones with flowers, offerings, holy water, food and drink on the second day of the festival. This is very much rooted in their culture and most will place at least flowers on family members' graves.

Halloween and the cut-outs of pumpkins go hand in hand in the memory of everyone who celebrates it or has witnessed it in movies and TV series. Just like in Britain and the US, on the first day of Halloween, around the country, you will now see children carving pumpkins and illuminating them with candles. It is now common to see pumpkins on sale in all supermarkets, something that wasn't so common 10 years ago. 

In the Southern part of Spain, in the city of Malaga, Halloween is marked with a large zombie march through the streets. You can witness the participants dressed up as witches, ghosts, goblins, zombies, vampires, Dracula, Frankenstein etc. roaming around on the streets and scaring people. There are competitions organised to tell scary stories and there is an eerie environment all around. This air of carnival can be seen in most cities around the country nowadays especially in University cities where you will see hundreds of students dressing up and roaming the streets.

In the city of Cadiz, during the Halloween holidays, street performances and concerts are organised. Also, you can enjoy the fruit and vegetable stalls which will display characters from some recent political scandals. The cut-outs and models made out of fruits and vegetables are quite mind-boggling. 
Tosantos in Cadiz also celebrates what is possibly the world’s weirdest Halloween gastro fest where market stallholders dress up their merchandise in fancy dress, so long as it’s entertaining and made out of food, anything goes. 

"Next stop, Banco de España." When you travel on line 2 of the Madrid metro and approach this station, little would you know that just a few meters away you can find one of the best-kept treasures in Spain, the Bank of Spain's gold deposit chamber? A chamber that contains a third of Spain’s total reserve of this precious metal.

The central headquarters of the Bank of Spain is one of the most representative buildings of Madrid and of the Spanish architecture of the 19th and early 20th centuries. For the construction of the current headquarters of the Bank of Spain, the palace of the Marquis of Alcañices was acquired in 1882, located on Calle de Alcalá around the Paseo del Prado. The first stone was laid on July 4, 1884, in a ceremony attended by King Alfonso XII and the monumental building was inaugurated in 1891.

Construction of the vault for the safekeeping of the gold began in late 1932 and was completed in two and a half years, with 260 workers working three shifts. Its approximate cost was nine and a half million pesetas. The inauguration took place shortly before the Civil War, during which it served as a refuge from the bombings for the families who inhabited the bank building.

The chamber is 35 meters deep and its surface is 2,500 square meters. Its design seems to be inspired by a similar construction of the vault of the Vienna Savings Bank.

The construction is made of reinforced concrete and molten cement, and to carry it out it was necessary to pipe and divert the waters present in the subsoil, some 25 meters deep, as it pressed on the walls of the chamber. This water corresponds to the Las Pascualas stream, which runs almost at surface level along the Castellana and which was, in its day, channelled underground, running down Calle Alcalá and feeds into the fountain of Cibeles.

Access to the chamber is through several armoured doors, the first of which weighs around 16 tons and was manufactured in Pennsylvania, USA, by Cofres Forts York (York Safe & Lock Company). The other smaller doors, but also armoured, were manufactured by the same company. Its weight ranges between 15 and 8 tons. To carry out the descent of these doors down into their position, steel cables were used that could only be used once, due to the wear they suffered when supporting the immense weight of the doors.

The armoured door has a very small tolerance, of tenths of a millimetre, so that even the slightest impurity in the arch prevents it from fitting correctly and the anchor points from being activated. In addition, the door is made of steel, but not stainless, so care must be taken to maintain it, and it should always be covered with a thin layer of petroleum jelly to prevent it from rusting.

The gold chamber houses the numismatic collection of the Bank of Spain, only comparable to the collections of the Archaeological Museum or the Royal Mint, and part of the gold reserves. Inside it, a third of the Spanish gold reserve is stacked on shelves made by the engineer Eiffel. Some even say that the chamber could contain 38 Nazi gold bars with which Switzerland paid Spain between 1941 and 1945 and that they have the III Reich shield with its swastika printed on them.

What is clear is that most of the coins that make up this collection come from popular subscriptions made during the Civil War, donations, sometimes voluntary, for the financing of the army and the deposits constituted from 1937, as a result of the Decree of Nationalization of Foreign Exchange and Gold. This Decree obliged all citizens to deliver the gold in paste or coin that they had in their power to replace the gold reserves that the republican government had sent to Moscow as payment for war supplies.

These deliveries were made in the form of deposits and most of them are not recoverable because the depositors chose to collect in cash the gold value of their coins. Others, whose coins had a higher numismatic or sentimental value, preferred to keep the deposit in the hope of recovering them when the regulations allowed. Some of the latter are still being returned, provided that the claimant can prove his right to the deposit.

The collection, of great numismatic value, is made up of more than half a million pieces and includes coins of very diverse origin since it collects not only the numismatic history of the Iberian Peninsula but there are also Greek, Roman, Byzantine pieces, from Hispanic America, French or British. It also has a complete collection of gold dollars, minted since the 17th century. There is also a less numerous collection of silver pieces.

The Bank of Spain owns 9.1 million troy ounces of gold, according to 2014 data, which are deposited in its own vaults and in three other places abroad, including the Bank for International Settlements in Basel, for reasons of logistical ease, in case it was necessary to mobilize these reserves. Another place where part of the gold is conserved is Fort Knox, in the United States. A standard gold bar weighs 400 troy ounces, just under 12 and a half kilos.

To get to the vault, you have to overcome various obstacles and as you can imagine, it is not very easy. That said, it sounds like an adventure for Indiana Jones and this location is the used in the new season of the Money Heist!

• The first obstacle is a 16-ton steel door. To open the door, three keys are necessary: ​​those of the general manager, the controller and the cashier.
• Then you reach a fortified elevator that is the only way to descend through a vertical tunnel of 36-38 meters. Of course, you need a different key to use the elevator.
• Once down, you go through an underground corridor until you reach another 14-ton steel door.
• Once through that door, there is a moat. To cross it you have to use a retractable bridge as in the Middle Ages.
• Behind the bridge is another 8-ton armoured door. This is the access to the vault that contains the gold. In addition to this, there are sensors, cameras and all kinds of surveillance devices.

If an alarm were to go off, all doors would automatically close and the moat would be completely flooded within minutes thanks to the underwater stream channelling into the fountain of Cibeles. The police or the army would arrive in less than 5 minutes and it would all be over.

But ultimately it is Cibeles who is safeguarding Spain’s gold!

Not once has anyone ever attempted to rob the Bank of Spain.

Inside the original building from 1891, the main staircase and the patio stand out, which was the general reception area and which today occupies the library, to which a cast-iron structure was added, commissioned from the Mieres Factory.

The monumental Carrara marble staircase, which is accessed from the Paseo del Prado door, is a sample of the most traditional architecture, designed by the Bank's architects and executed by Adolfo Areizaga from Bilbao. Next to it are magnificent Symbolist-style stained glass windows commissioned from the German company Mayer, with numerous allegorical figures.

With the expansion decided in 1927 and completed in 1934, the new operations yard, with a height of 27 meters and an area of ​​about 900 square meters, departs from the classic concepts and includes some examples of Art Deco, such as the upper window or the clock, a decorative and functional piece located in the centre of the patio. Also noteworthy is the roundabout, which serves as an interior link between the two buildings.

Drawing upon the rich tapestry of traditional Galician life, the Carapucho emerges not merely as a garment but as a testament to the ingenuity and resilience of the Galician people, especially the rural populace. This unique creation, fashioned from straw, reflects a harmonious blend of necessity and artistry, deeply embedded in the historical narrative of Northern Spain.

The Essence of Carapucho

The rural areas of Galicia have always been subject to harsh environmental conditions, with cold rains characterising much of the year. The Carapucho was born out of a practical need to shield oneself from these relentless downpours. However, its significance transcends its utility, marking a cultural identity that has weathered the storms of time.

Crafted from straw, the Carapucho served as a makeshift raincoat for peasants. This material choice was no accident; straw was readily available and offered effective waterproof characteristics, making it an ideal resource for protective clothing in a pre-industrial context. The craftsmanship involved in creating a Carapucho demonstrates a profound understanding of the materials at hand and a creative spirit that turned simple agricultural byproducts into a vital part of everyday life. The process of making a Carapucho involved more than merely fashioning a hat or a cloak; it was a meticulous craft that required patience, skill, and a deep connection with the natural environment. The peasants would gather straw or reeds, materials that were in abundant supply across the Galician countryside. These were then intricately woven together to form a coherent structure. The result was not only functional, protecting the wearer's entire head and, in some cases, even the shoulders and upper body from the rain, but also allowed for free movement, which was crucial for working outdoors.

Moreover, the creation of the Carapucho was a communal activity, reflecting the collectivist spirit of rural Galicia. It was common for families or groups of neighbours to come together, sharing techniques and stories as they worked. This not only facilitated the practical transmission of knowledge across generations but also strengthened community bonds. Each Carapucho, therefore, was imbued with a sense of shared identity and collective resilience.

Beyond Practicality: Symbolism and Identity

While the primary function of the Carapucho was undeniably practical, its cultural significance cannot be overstated. In a region where weather could dictate the rhythm of daily life, the ability to carry on work regardless of the elements was both a necessity and a point of pride. The Carapucho came to symbolise the hardiness of the Galician people, embodying their unyielding spirit and close relationship with the land.

As industrialisation and modern advances introduced new materials and clothing options, the use of the Carapucho in its traditional form diminished. However, it remains a potent symbol of Galician heritage, evoking memories of a time when life was intimately tied to the rhythms of nature and community was forged in the face of adversity.

The Carapucho Today

In contemporary times, the Carapucho holds a special place in the cultural memory of Galicia. While no longer a common sight in the fields, it endures as an emblem of Galician identity, celebrated at cultural events and festivals. Artisans and historians alike continue to explore and preserve the techniques used to create these remarkable garments, ensuring that the knowledge does not fade into obscurity.

The Carapucho is much more than a historical curiosity; it is a vibrant thread in the fabric of Galician culture, representing the convergence of necessity, creativity, and community. 

The Aljafería in Zaragoza was declared a National Monument of Historical and Artistic Interest on the 4th June 1931. In 1947, however, it still remained a woeful sight in rags, according to the architect Francisco Íñiguez Almech, who for over thirty years undertook a slow and thorough recovery task. After his death in 1982, this was continued by the architects Ángel Peropadre Muniesa, Luis Franco Lahoz and Mariano Pemán Gavín. The result of all these alterations, backed by several archaeological digs, has led to the present-day appearance of the building, in which the original remains can be distinguished from the reconstructed part.  

Moreover, the Regional Assembly of Aragon has its seat in one section of this collection of historical buildings. Work on the Assembly building was started in 1985 by the architects Franco and Pemán. This work is part of the aesthetic trends of contemporary architecture, and its authors have avoided including historical elements that could lead to possible mistaken interpretation. In 2001, UNESCO declared the Mudejar architecture of Aragon a World Heritage site, and praised the Aljafería palace as one of the most representative and emblematic monuments of Aragonese Mudejar Architecture.

This retains part of the primitive fortified enclosure on a quadrangular floor plan reinforced by great ultra-semicircular turrets, together with the prismatic volume of the troubadour Tower, whose lower part, which dates from the IX century, is the most ancient part of the architectonic building.

The Islamic Palace enclosure houses residential quarters in its central area which are similar to the typological model of the 'omeya' influenced Islamic palaces, just like those that had developed in the Moslem palaces in the desert (which date back to the VIII century). So, in contrast to the defensive spirit and the strength of its walls, the 'taifal' palace, which is of delicate ornamental beauty, presents a composite plan based on a great rectangular open-air courtyard with a pool on its southern side. Next come two lateral porticoes with a polycusped mixed line series of arches that acts as visual screens and at the far end some tripartite rooms, which were originally intended for ceremonial and private use. There is also a small oratory in the northern portico, with a small octagonal floor plan, in whose interior fine and lavish plaster decorations can be seen (with typical ataurique motifs) as well as some brightly coloured well contrasted pictorial fragments, which are of particular interest. All of these artistic achievements correspond to the work carried out during the second half of the XI century under the command of Abu-Ya-far Ah-mad ibn Hud al-Muqtadir, and they serve to highlight the cultural importance and the rich virtuosity of his court. Furthermore, the Aljafería is thought to be one of the greatest pinnacles of Hispano-Moslem art, and its artistic contributions were later copied at the Reales Alcazares in Seville and at the Alhambra in Granada.

The palace of the Catholic King and Queen was erected on top of the Moslem structure in around 1492, to symbolise the power and prestige of the Christian monarchs. However, the direction of the work fell to the Mudejar master, Faraig de Gali. The work blended the medieval artistic inheritance with the new Renaissance contributions. From this origin came some of the most significant examples of the so-called Reyes Catolicos style (that of the Catholic King and Queen).
 

The palace comprises a flight of stairs, a gallery or corridor and a collection of rooms known as The Lost Steps, which lead to the Great Throne Room. Of these, the most interesting are, on the one hand, the paving made up of small paving tiles and the tiles from Muel, and on the other, the gold and polychrome wooden ceilings among which the magnificent coffered ceiling in the Throne Room is especially remarkable.

From 1593, by order of King Phillip II, the Siennese engineer Tiburcio Spanochi drew up plans to transform the Aljafería into a modern style fort or citadel. Consequently, he provided the buildings with an outer walled enclosure with pentagonal bastions at the corners and an imposing moat surrounding it all (with slightly sloping walls and corresponding drawbridges). However, the real reason for building this fort was none other than to show royal authority in the face of the Aragonese people’s demands for their rights as well as the monarch’s wish to curb possible revolts by the people of Zaragoza. After this first military renovation, throughout the XVIII and XIX centuries, extensive alterations were made to the building to adapt it for its use a barracks. To this day the blocks built during the reign of Charles III remain, along with two of the NeoGothic turrets added during the time of Isabel II.
 
Lastly, it must be must be pointed out that very few Aragonese monuments have as many excellent architectonic examples such as those at the Aljafería in Zaragoza, summing up ten centuries of daily life as well as historic and artistic events in Aragon.

Although there are those who still think that Madrid has always been the capital of Spain, the truth is that it has not. Throughout the history of the country and for different historical reasons throughout it, the capital moved in the past to other cities such as Toledo, Valladolid, Cádiz or Valencia, among others. All this together with the first capitals that were part of the peninsula at the time of ancient Visigothic Hispania, at the time of the Roman Republic or at the beginning of the Kingdom of Spain that originated after the reconquest in Covadonga (Asturias). These are the cities that have been the capital of Spain:

Cordoba

Córdoba was founded by the Romans during the second century BC, and it also became the capital of Hispania in times of the Roman Republic, as well as the Betica province during the Roman Empire. But its moment of splendour as a capital occurred during the Muslim domination of the Iberian Peninsula when it rose as the capital of the Emirate of Córdoba. A history that has also led it to become the city that houses the most titles of World Heritage Sites and thanks to authentic treasures that still live on today such as the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, its historic centre, the Fiesta de Los Patios or the palatine city of Medina Azahara, among others.

Barcelona

Barcelona was the first capital of Hispania Goda and it was reinstated several times specifically during the Visigothic period. Known at that time as Barcino, present-day Barcelona was a Roman city until the arrival of the Goths. Few remains from that Visigoth period are currently preserved in Barcelona, but most of what has been preserved can be seen in the archaeological basement of the Barcelona History Museum. Another important moment in the history of the city would be in 1937 when, in the middle of the Civil War, it was decided to move the headquarters of the Republican Government to Barcelona.

Cangas de Onís

In addition to being known as one of the must-see visits if you travel to Asturias, as well as for the Covadonga Cave, the Basilica and the famous lakes of Covadonga, Cangas de Onís was the first capital of Asturias and according to Asturians, it was also the first capital of the Kingdom of Spain. It was precisely in Covadonga where Don Pelayo won the battle against Muslim troops in 722, thus initiating the Reconquest. In Cangas de Onís, Don Pelayo first established the capital of the Kingdom of Asturias and later that of Spain.
 

Toledo

Toledo has had its role as capital in two moments in history. The first was in the year 567 when King Atanagildo decided to move the capital of the Spanish Visigothic Kingdom from Barcelona to Toledo. In this way, Toledo became the capital of the Kingdom of Spain. Hundreds of years later, between 1519 and 1561, Toledo once again became the capital of the Spanish empire with Carlos V, but they would finally end up in 1561 with the Cortes moving to Madrid.

Madrid

The history of Madrid as capital begins in May 1561 when Felipe II makes the decision to establish the Court permanently in this city. A decision that would forever change the history of the city, which at that time was just one more city in the kingdom. One of the main reasons associated with this decision is the geographical centrality of Madrid with respect to the rest of the peninsula, although this change has also been linked to political and love affairs on the part of Felipe II.

From this moment the accelerated growth of this city began, although it should be noted that between 1601 and 1939 the Cortes passed in different periods of time from Madrid to other cities such as Valladolid, Seville, Cádiz, Valencia or Burgos, the latter two, coinciding with the instability of the Spanish Civil War. It is finally in 1939 when the capital city returns permanently to Madrid.

Valladolid

For the city of Valladolid, history took an unexpected turn in 1601 after the advisor of Felipe III, the Duke of Lerma, managed to transfer the Court of Madrid to Valladolid. An unexpected event that made Valladolid the capital of the Empire from 1601 to 1606. An event that also brought this city its moment of maximum splendour.

Seville

Seville was the capital of Spain specifically for two years and at the same time that the Napoleonic wars occurred (between 1808 and 1810). In those years, a large part of Spanish territory was invaded by Napoleon's troops and Seville was one of the places where they fought with the greatest force against these troops. It was specifically on December 16, 1808, when Count Floridablanca, president of the 'Junta Central', summoned the Junta to Seville, from which time Seville became the Spanish capital, the Real Alcázar being the headquarters of the  'Junta Central'. This came to an end in January 1810 when Seville finally surrendered to the French army.

Cadiz

In addition to being the oldest city in Spain and also in Europe, its foundation being located eighty years after the Trojan War around the 13th century BC, Cádiz also became the capital of Spain after the transfer of the Cortes and after the handover of Seville to the French. Its period as capital city ran from 1810 to 1813 and it was in this city where the Spanish Constitution of 1812, La Pepa, was proclaimed.

Valencia

Valencia also experienced its time as the capital of Spain, something that occurred between November 1936 and October 1937, after the Council of Ministers made the decision to move the capital and due to the dangerous approach of Franco's troops to Madrid. A moment in history that corresponded to the Second Republic and in the midst of the Civil War. A new capital that happened from one day to the next. The current headquarters of the Cortes, the Palacio de Los Borja, was converted to the republican centre of operations.

Burgos

After the government of the Republic moved between 1936 and 1939 from Valencia, to Barcelona and Gerona and Figueras, finally, Burgos ended up holding the capital of Spain between April 1 and October 18, 1939, coinciding with the end of the Spanish Civil War. This resulted in Burgos becoming the capital of nationalist Spain after the coup against the Republic.

In the annals of Spanish history, few artefacts command as much reverence and awe as the Tizona sword. This legendary blade, purportedly wielded by Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar—better known as El Cid—, is not merely a weapon but a symbol of valour, gallantry, and the complex socio-political fabric of medieval Spain. El Cid, a formidable military leader and nobleman of the 11th century, is a seminal figure in Spanish lore, synonymous with the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors. The Tizona is integral to his mythos, embodying the essence of a hero who transcended mere mortal boundaries to become a legend.

The Tizona's origins are shrouded in the mists of history, with its first documented references dating back to the "Cantar de mio Cid," an epic poem that extols the virtues and deeds of El Cid. The sword's name, "Tizona," resonates with the force of thunderbolt, suggesting its invincible power and the fear it instilled in the hearts of its wielder's enemies. According to legend, Tizona was one of the two great swords belonging to El Cid, the other being Colada. These swords were not only weapons of war but also represented El Cid's authority and his martial prowess.

While the poetic saga glorifies Tizona as a singular weapon of unmatched potency, historical analyses suggest that it was a product of the sophisticated Andalusian steel-making techniques of the time. The craftsmanship attributed to the sword indicates a blend of various cultural influences, reflecting the confluence of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish traditions in medieval Spain. Swords of this era were typically made from high-carbon steel, with intricate patterns forged into their blades, a testament to the artisan's skill and the technology of the period. The exact dimensions and specifications of the original Tizona are matters of speculation, as multiple versions exist, each claiming authenticity.

The Tizona sword occupies a pivotal place in Spain's cultural and historical psyche. Beyond its martial significance, the sword symbolizes the Reconquista, a centuries-long campaign by Christian states to reclaim territory from Muslim rule. El Cid, straddling the worlds of Christianity and Islam, emerges as a unifying figure, with Tizona as his emblem. The sword represents the valour, honour, and cultural synthesis that characterized the medieval Iberian Peninsula.

Over the centuries, several swords have been identified as the legendary Tizona. One of the most famous is housed in the Museum of Burgos, Spain, purportedly donated by the Marquis of Falces in the 19th century. The authenticity of this sword has been the subject of debate among historians and scientists. In 2007, a study using advanced metallurgical techniques confirmed the sword's origin to the late 11th or early 12th century, aligning with El Cid's lifetime, thus lending credence to its legendary status. However, whether this sword truly belonged to El Cid remains an enigma wrapped in the layers of myth and history.

The Tizona sword, attributed to El Cid, transcends its identity as a mere historical artefact to become a beacon of Spanish identity and pride. It embodies the essence of a period marked by conflict, coexistence, and the melding of diverse cultures. More than a weapon, Tizona is a testament to the enduring legacy of El Cid, a hero whose life continues to inspire and captivate the imagination of people around the world. Whether resting in a museum or living on in the romanticized tales of yore, Tizona remains an indelible icon of Spanish heritage.

Many crimes have been committed in the name of paella but now researchers in Valencia have laid down 10 commandments of what thou shall and shall not put in their national dish.

The ten permitted ingredients are; rice, water, olive oil, salt, saffron (or food colouring), grated tomato, flat wide green beans, butter beans, chicken and rabbit. No fish or mussels or prawns or anything of the sort.

The research was carried out by social scientists at the Universidad Católica de Valencia at the instigation of local chef Rafael Vidal. The researchers questioned 400 amateur chefs aged over 50 from 266 Valencian villages.

The results were published in the International Journal of Gastronomy and Science and were presented at a meeting titled "A nightmare global discussion: what are the ingredients of Paella Valenciana?"

Ninety per cent of those interviewed agreed on the 10 essential ingredients, with some disagreeement over rabbit (88.9%). Paprika (62.5%) and rosemary (52.2%) are also considered acceptable and very common, as are artichokes (46.3%), when in season.

“Everyone has an opinion about paella but the idea was to do fieldwork to establish what are the essential ingredients,” says Pablo Vidal (no relation), an anthropologist at the university involved in the research.

“What we have shown is what is always an ingredient of paella, what ingredients are sometimes used and what should never be used.”

To the Valencians, their version of paella is "the" version and nothing else is worthy of the name. Some will even argue that it can only be made from water from the region.

If people in the rest of Spain want to add seafood, sausage or even black pudding, that’s their business, says Vidal, but in Valencian eyes, it’s not paella and never will be.

The "typical" mixed meat and seafood paella encountered elsewhere in Spain is generally dismissed by Valencianos as Arroz con Cosas (rice with things).

“In Valencia everyone thinks their recipe is the best which is why we carried out this research, to try to arrive at a consensus,” he said.

Last year the regional government declared Valencian paella a cultural asset. “Paella is an icon of the Mediterranean diet, because of both its ingredients and its characteristics as a representation of Valencian culture,” read the eight-page declaration which was published in Spain’s official state bulletin.

The new study says that paella’s global popularity “is both a success and a challenge”. One such challenge was the outrage caused by the British chef Jamie Oliver’s recipe for paella with chorizo.

“Oliver helped to provoke a discussion about what makes an authentic Paella Valenciana,” says Vidal. “I’m sure that one day he’ll have a street in Valencia named after him.”

Like a barbecue, paella is a dish for social events that are usually prepared at the weekend or on holidays. Vidal says there are as many recipes as there are cooks and what makes a good paella is a matter of opinion, except in Valencia, where it’s a question of science, or perhaps a religion.

The Spanish Civil War, lasting from 1936 to 1939, was a turbulent period that not only devastated Spain but also foreshadowed the global conflict that would follow with World War II. This internal conflict ultimately led to nearly four decades of dictatorship under General Francisco Franco. Here, we examine the origins, development, and culmination of the Spanish Civil War, culminating in Franco's rise to power.

The origins of the Spanish Civil War can be traced back to the profound political and social tensions that emerged in Spain during the early 20th century. The seeds of conflict were sown during the years following the industrial and agrarian revolutions of the 19th century, which had created significant disparities in wealth and opportunity. The establishment of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931 escalated tensions, as its ambitious social and political reforms polarized the Spanish society.

The Republic sought to modernize Spain's infrastructure, education system, and economy, but its secular policies, particularly those aimed at reducing the influence of the Catholic Church, alienated conservative segments of the population. Meanwhile, land and labor reforms alarmed the aristocracy and wealthy landowners. The military, too, was concerned by the republic's reforms and perceived weakness.

The immediate precursor to the war was a military coup attempt launched in July 1936 by Nationalist forces against the Republican government. The coup, led by a group of high-ranking army officers including General Francisco Franco, was only partially successful, leading Spain to be divided into a Republican-held area and a Nationalist-controlled zone.

The conflict quickly escalated into a full-scale civil war, as both sides sought support from international allies. The Republican government received aid from the Soviet Union and International Brigades composed of leftist volunteers from across the globe, while the Nationalist rebels were supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

The war consisted of several major phases and key battles, including the Battle of Madrid, where Republican forces managed to hold the city against a Nationalist onslaught, and the Battle of the Ebro, the longest and bloodiest battle of the war. Despite several successes, the Republican side was plagued by internal divisions between anarchists, socialists, and communists, which undermined their efforts to create a cohesive military strategy.

The Nationalists, on the other hand, benefited from better coordination, superior weaponry supplied by their fascist allies, and a unified command under Franco. By the end of 1938, the Nationalist forces had captured Catalonia, cutting off the Republic from the French border and securing victory in the war.

The war formally ended on April 1, 1939, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered. The aftermath was brutal for those associated with the Republic, with tens of thousands executed or imprisoned in a sweeping wave of repression.

General Francisco Franco emerged as the unchallenged ruler of Spain, establishing a dictatorship that would last until his death in 1975. Under Franco's regime, Spain remained largely isolated from the rest of Europe and underwent a period of censorship, economic hardship, and political repression. The Francoist period also saw the imposition of conservative social norms, the reinstatement of Catholicism as the state religion, and a slow but eventual economic recovery and modernization from the 1950s onward.

The Spanish Civil War was more than a national conflict; it served as a prelude to World War II, embodying the ideological battles between fascism, communism, and democracy that would soon engulf the world. Its legacy is complex, marked by decades of dictatorship under Franco, the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives, and the deep divisions it created in Spanish society—wounds that, for some, have yet to fully heal. The war's end and the ensuing dictatorship under Franco dramatically shaped the course of Spanish history, leaving an indelible mark on the nation's identity and its path to democracy.

I bet you're thinking about this now as you bake in the relentless Summer heat! But would you live in a town that rains every other day? If you are one of those people who love the rain, this town may be perfect for you. This Spanish town in the province of Cádiz is located in the northeast of the province, in the reserve area of the Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park.

The name of the town is Grazalema and its rainfall rate is the highest in Spain, registering more than 1,962 mm of average annual rainfall in the municipality. To put that into perspective London has an annual rainfall of around 592mm!  And the average for the whole of the UK is 885mm per year. So more than double the UK average. In addition, it is unsurprisingly the home to the source of the Guadalete River.

It is the first mountainous area to encounter the humid Atlantic winds which enter from the southwestern coast, causing the town of Cádiz to have high rainfall. As the water passes through the low and warm lands, this air cools as it increases in altitude, causing the clouds that will later drop the rain.

Grazalema has a considerable variation of monthly rainfall according to the season. The rainy period of the year lasts for 8.5 months, from September 10 to May 28, with a sliding 31-day rainfall of at least 0.5 inches.

Within the municipality, we encounter a Cadiz village with its urban centre that was declared a Historic Site, where you can see various buildings built according to the typical popular architecture.

It also boasts several churches that must not be missed. The first of them, and the most important, is the 18th century Baroque Church of Nuestra Señora de la Aurora, accompanied by the Church of the Incarnation, from the 17th century but renovated in the 19th. We can also find the Church of San Juan, from the 18th century, followed by the Church of San José, from the 17th century. Without forgetting its only hermitage from the 20th century, under the invocation of Our Lady of the Angels.

Benamahoma is the name of the district which the arabas called 'Ben-Muhammad', meaning "sons of Muhammad." In this municipality, the Islamic influence can be seen in the peculiar layout of its streets. You can also go through the Museum of Textile Crafts where you can see artisan objects such as numerous collections of blankets. The town is famous for its traditional handmade blankets.

Without forgetting the fabulous traditional Cadiz cuisine, in Grazalema, you can taste numerous typical dishes. A wonderful example would be the Grazalema soup, a stew broth made with egg, chorizo, bread and mint. Some of its other specialities are the 'tagarninas' or the very typical roast lamb.